Introduction:
In recent years, terrorist operations have surged worldwide. While terrorism has existed since ancient times and even before recorded history, its current intensity and global threat are unprecedented. It is challenging to pinpoint the true origins of terrorism or the start of terrorist activities in general. Some argue that the first human terrorist act in history was the murder committed by Cain against his brother Abel, following their father Adam’s decision to marry off his sons, Abel and Cain. This is referenced in the Quran: “And recite to them the parable of the two sons of Adam, in truth. When they both offered a sacrifice, it was accepted from one but not from the other. [The latter] said, ‘I will surely kill you.’ [The former] said, ‘Indeed, Allah only accepts from the righteous’” (Quran 5:27). Others consider this act a criminal offense rather than terrorism and suggest that the first planned terrorist act was that carried out by the sons of Jacob (Israel) in the story of Joseph, as described in the Quran: “Indeed, there was in Joseph and his brothers a sign for those who ask” (Quran 12:6). This event is seen as the first instance of terrorism because it was premeditated and executed according to a plan. However, some references indicate that the earliest known terrorist movements were those of the Jews in the early part of the century before the birth of Jesus Christ.
Importance of the Research:
The importance of this research arises from the increasing discussion about terrorism and Islam, particularly in Western media, which often aims to malign the Islamic presence and ignite new conflicts with the West. The impact of terrorism on peaceful coexistence in Iraq is a significant concern.
Research Problem:
Today, Islam’s reputation is subjected to intense scrutiny, with the mere mention of terrorism or extremism often being depicted as originating from Islam. This fear of Islam needs to be addressed with sincere effort and effective dialogue. It is crucial not to place the Islamic religion— which advocates for peace, tolerance, and the dignity and rights of individuals— under suspicion, nor to exploit its followers as tools for harming innocents and civilians.
Research Objectives:
The research aims to:
1. Study the phenomenon of terrorism globally and highlight the positions of various religions, avoiding exaggeration and arrogance.
2. Investigate the causes and motives behind terrorism.
3. Identify effective methods to combat terrorism and reduce its risks.
Research Methodology:
The descriptive-analytical method has been adopted for this research.
Research Sources:
The following sources have been utilized for writing this research:
1. Research papers, bulletins, and journals on the topic.
2. Various media outlets, including audio, visual, and print.
3. Relevant references and books.
Research Limitations:
Several limitations have emerged in this research:
1. Although terrorism is a prominent topic in news reports globally, Arabic references in this field are limited.
2. There is a wealth of Western references and writings that reflect a biased perspective, whether intentionally or due to a lack of understanding of the nature of Islam.
3. Despite the long-standing presence of terrorism, there is no comprehensive international definition of terrorism.
Research Hypotheses:
The research will adopt the following hypotheses:
1. Terrorism is a global phenomenon not confined to a specific time period.
2. Terrorism is not limited to any particular religion, ethnicity, or nation.
3. There is a lack of international consensus on defining and combating terrorism.
Chapter One: The Concept of Constructivist Theory
Theories and schools of thought in international relations aim to interpret and analyze political phenomena and relationships between states to understand the reasons and motivations behind current events and to predict future trends in these relationships. Constructivism can be considered more of an approach than a theory; it provides a framework for studying international relations from a sociological perspective. Before the 1980s, it was an epistemological and philosophical approach focused on how meanings are formed among people through their experiences and ideas. Constructivism allows researchers in international relations to develop theoretical foundations for international political phenomena and to make predictions without inherently predicting general phenomena.
Origins:
The emergence of constructivism in international relations is closely tied to the end of the Cold War between the United States and the Soviet Union, an event that traditional theories like realism and liberalism failed to explain. This failure is attributed to these theories’ focus on power and national interest when examining relations between states.
Constructivism as a Social Theory:
Like several theories in international relations, constructivism originated as a social theory before being applied to the field of international relations. Therefore, it is crucial to review its social principles to understand its perspective on international relations.
Constructivism asserts that human relationships are shaped by ideas rather than solely by material conditions or elements of power. According to constructivism, the social world is not a given entity; it is not something existing independently of the ideas and opinions of those involved. It is not an external reality that can be discovered through scientific research or explained through scientific theory, as behaviorists might suggest. Everything within the social world is created by humans, making it clear and comprehensible to them. The social world is made up of human consciousness, ideas, beliefs, principles, languages, signals, and prevailing concepts among people, especially within groups like nations and states. The social world is a realm of shared subjectivity, where it holds meaning for those who create it and live within it, and who understand it because they have created it and feel a sense of belonging and security.
Understanding Constructivist Theory in International Relations:
Constructivism primarily focuses on human awareness and the role it plays in international affairs, contrasting with other theories, especially neorealism, which emphasize material aspects and the distribution of power—military and economic—in determining the balance of power and explaining state behavior. Constructivists reject this exclusive materialist explanation and argue that the most crucial element in international relations is social rather than material. In constructivist terms, our world is primarily socially constructed.
Alexander Wendt is considered a key figure in developing the constructivist perspective. He provided an excellent example to illustrate the social construction of our reality by noting that the threat posed by 500 British nuclear weapons to the United States is less significant than the threat from 5 North Korean nuclear weapons. This is because the threat is not inherent in the nuclear weapons themselves (the material structure) but in the meaning ascribed to this material structure (the ideational structure). Thus, nuclear weapons only have meaning when framed within the social context that defines the relationship between the United States and Britain, versus the United States and North Korea.
According to Wendt, the interaction between states shapes identities and creates interests, unlike what realists assume—that identities and interests exist prior to interaction, with states knowing their identities and desires before engaging with other states. Wendt uses another example: if the United States and the Soviet Union had decided they were not adversaries, the Cold War would have ended. This shows that collective meaning constructs the framework that organizes and defines our actions and movements.
Critique of Constructivist Theory:
The most prominent criticisms of constructivism come from its intellectual adversary, neorealism. Neorealists question the significance that constructivism places on social patterns, particularly on the international stage. They argue that such patterns do exist but can be easily ignored by major powers when they conflict with their interests.
Neorealists also reject the idea that states can easily form friendly relations based on their social interactions. While this might be desirable in principle, it is not practical because the international system compels states to act in their self-interest.
Another issue overlooked by constructivism is the sense of suspicion or uncertainty that states have towards each other, meaning the lack of certainty about each other’s true intentions, whether current or future. Constructivism also overlooks the issue of deception, assuming that state interactions are always honest and straightforward.
Case Study Application: Terrorism in Iraq
Terrorism is not a modern phenomenon; some trace its origins back hundreds of years. In the first century AD, according to the Old Testament (Torah), a group of extremists terrorized wealthy Jews who collaborated with the Roman occupiers in regions east of the Mediterranean.
During the Roman era, distinguishing between political crimes and terrorism was challenging. After the Roman period, terrorism was used by feudal lords to control their territories and the serfs within them. By the early seventeenth century, European dominance over global seas led to an increase in trade ships and, consequently, piracy, which was considered a form of terrorism and persisted until the early twentieth century. Thus, terrorism has evolved over time in different forms depending on its perpetrators and circumstances. It is a social phenomenon that develops with societies, and its forms have changed due to scientific and technological advancements. Despite the widespread use of the term “terrorism,” there is no universally agreed-upon definition of the concept, both internationally and academically, due to differing ideological factors and cultural structures. What one state or society considers terrorism may not be seen the same way by another.
The concept of terrorism in the 1937 Geneva Convention, which aims to prevent and suppress terrorism, is framed as terrorism by individuals directed against the state. The convention is notable for defining specific crimes as terrorism. Article 1 defines terrorism as “criminal acts directed against a state that cause fear and terror among certain individuals or groups or the public.”
Several political science researchers have made serious efforts to define terrorism. In the book “Political Terrorism,” Alex Schmid reviewed one hundred definitions of terrorism by experts and researchers and found common elements among these definitions. These include that terrorism is an abstract concept without a concrete essence and that no single definition can encompass all uses of the term. Many different definitions share common factors, and the meaning of terrorism is derived from the targeted victim.
Brian Jenkins defines terrorism as “a set of specific actions intended to cause terror and fear.” Eric Morris defines it as “the use or threat of unusual and unfamiliar violence to achieve political goals. Terrorist acts are usually symbolic to create a psychological impact rather than a material one.”
Therefore, the concept of terrorism should not only encompass acts by individuals or groups but should also include “state terrorism” to avoid a duality in defining the concept. For example, what Israel does can only be described as state terrorism against a defenseless people fighting for their right to self-determination.
Terrorism is one of the most ambiguous concepts in contemporary global political thought, defined as “any use of random or organized violence against civilians to intimidate them and achieve political or personal goals.” Internationally, terrorism is understood as an attack reaching the level of criminal acts, with the political nature of the target differentiating it from political crimes. Political sociology defines terrorism as any human behavior involving the use of coercive force, including intimidation, physical harm, and the unlawful use of weapons and torture techniques, violating fundamental human rights established by religious and international conventions. This behavior aims to achieve various objectives, ranging from coercion and pressure to marginalization, and may affect others who are not the primary targets. Such coercive, non-peaceful behavior occurs among individuals, groups, or authorities within or between societies and arises from intersecting elements from different environments. Terrorism can sometimes be a proactive act or, more frequently, a reaction. In both cases, it targets a specific group or individuals to instill fear and terror, or it may use the initial target as a means to influence another party, often targeting the weaker party.
Causes of Terrorism
Before discussing the underlying causes of terrorism, it is crucial to recognize that while some terrorist acts warrant punishment, others are linked to political and social issues stemming from the grievances of oppressed peoples. To combat terrorism effectively, understanding its root causes is essential. Any attempt to address terrorism without acknowledging its fundamental causes will be ineffective. The United Nations acknowledged in a report about two decades ago that terrorism is a complex issue due to its intricacy. Understanding this phenomenon requires considering the backgrounds causing terrorism and violence in various parts of the world. The UN accused major powers of bearing significant responsibility for the spread of terrorism, citing reasons such as the use of the veto in the Security Council, negligence in fulfilling their duties, and collusion and bias leading to failures in international cooperation and resolving economic and social problems. Additionally, the rights of oppressed states have been violated. The UN Special Committee on International Terrorism identified political, economic, and social causes of terrorism:
Political Causes:
1. One state controlling another (colonialism).
2. Racial discrimination.
3. Use of force against weaker states.
4. Interference in the internal affairs of other states.
5. Foreign occupation (partial or complete).
6. Repression and violence to displace or control a specific population.
Economic Causes:
1. Imbalance in the global economic system.
2. Exploitation of developing countries’ natural resources.
Social Causes:
1. Violation of human rights (through torture, imprisonment, or revenge).
2. Hunger, deprivation, misery, and ignorance.
3. Ignoring the suffering of persecuted peoples.
4. Environmental destruction.
Some causes remain unknown to the general public, known only to security officials directly involved in investigating captured terrorists. These officials might understand the motivations behind their acts of bombing, destruction, and sabotage. Although such actions are unjustifiable, there may be hidden causes known only to those directly involved. These causes may become clearer over time. For now, some insights from responsible officials and experts on terrorism suggest primary causes:
1. Ideological Deviation: Many young jihadists abroad have been misled by false beliefs due to scholars who deviated from the right path. They thought they had achieved a level of knowledge surpassing even that of revered figures like Abu Bakr and Umar (may Allah be pleased with them). This misguided belief led them to issue fatwas and caused the current state of injustice and violence.
2. Expulsion of Non-Muslims from the Holy Land: This issue is not solely in the hands of citizens, who lack the freedom to intervene in political matters they are unfamiliar with. Allowing people to delve into political issues could lead to the downfall of the nation and destroy it. The expulsion of non-Muslims from Islamic lands is contingent on the pressing need for them, which will be discussed further.
3. Providing Employment Opportunities for Youth: Every country, whether advanced or developing, faces unemployment. Unemployment alone is not a reason to commit murder, destroy property, or engage in terrorism. Although economic and political factors might prevent job creation, there are other avenues for youth employment, such as self-employment, work in private or public sector companies, and retail jobs. Even if salaries are modest, having a job is better than remaining idle, and the government is committed to addressing this issue.
4. Investigation and Torture Methods: Many young jihadists returning from Afghanistan, who were imprisoned without committing any crimes, faced torture and harsh interrogation. Some accepted this as a necessary procedure and left with love and respect for their country, while others began planning revenge, which led to widespread destruction and violence. It is essential to ask Allah to restore stability and prosperity to our land and people.
Motivations for Terrorism
Economic Factors:
Economic factors play a significant role in shaping terrorism behavior among individuals and societies. Economic needs are often unmet by any potential alternatives, and widespread economic issues inevitably lead to the destruction of civilization and social structures. These problems affect the general population, as economic development fosters certain social relations. When economic needs are met, it leads to social cohesion and interconnectedness. Conversely, unmet needs result in antagonistic behaviors and violence.
Accordingly, economic reasons behind the rise of terrorism can be categorized into internal and external factors:
1. Internal Factors:
a. Underdevelopment: This is primarily caused by economic policies that do not align with the social reality of a state, creating a widening gap between the rich and the poor, the educated and the uneducated, and between those with extensive economic interests and marginalized economic groups. Essentially, this disparity fuels a divide between those who possess resources and seek to increase them, even at the expense of impoverishing and marginalizing large segments of society, and those who lack resources and are willing to sacrifice their lives to achieve status or escape their current conditions, particularly among the youth.
b. Unemployment: Unemployment, whether real or hidden, creates feelings of helplessness and despair among the youth. This frustration, combined with a sense of futility in their harsh reality, drives some to seek out groups or individuals willing to pay substantial sums for small tasks. Such tasks, although violent or bloody, are perceived by these individuals as purposeful and worth the effort. Young people without job opportunities become easy targets for various extremist groups, whether religious, political, or criminal.
**c. Inequitable Distribution of Wealth and Resources:** The uneven distribution of wealth and resources necessary for development and meeting basic needs results in growing social injustice and collective frustration. Relative deprivation does not necessarily stem from individual poverty but can occur even among the wealthy if they feel marginalized or inferior due to state policies. This can lead to anger and radical reactions, including terrorism.
d. Administrative Corruption: Government corruption contributes significantly to terrorism. This includes issues like inflation, economic recessions, illegal deals with state officials, and the smuggling of substandard goods facilitated by influential individuals. Bribery and lack of accountability for public money misuse, regardless of cultural, social, or tribal status, also generate frustration among the youth and marginalized groups, potentially leading to organized violent acts targeting individuals, institutions, or the state itself. Corruption often manifests in various forms, such as theft, extortion, and organized kidnappings for ransom, which are then used to fund political or armed campaigns.
e. A Combination of Factors: Based on the above points, an equation can be formulated as follows: Ignorance + Poverty and Deprivation + Repression and Marginalization + Lack of Justice = Terrorism. This equation does not negate the role of external factors but suggests they can exacerbate these conditions, leading to ongoing conflict or social strife.
2. External Factors:
The external environment and its connection to terrorism primarily involve policies and external forces that directly or indirectly pressure a state to follow certain policies, creating a climate of hostility and conflict that can fuel internal and external strife. Understanding external factors is as crucial as internal ones because they indicate the outcomes of terrorist actions.
The United Nations General Assembly in 1972 established a committee to study the economic, social, and political motivations behind terrorism. The committee identified the following causes:
a. An Unjust International Economic System: This can create ongoing resentment and hostility among different global populations.
b. Foreign Exploitation of National Resources: Often resulting from dependency, this exploitation can lead to resentment.
c. Destruction of Infrastructure: The devastation of populations, transportation, and economic structures in some countries.
d. Political, Economic, and Social Exploitation: This includes poverty, hunger, suffering, and disappointment.
e. Deterioration of the International Economic Environment: Dominance of major powers over the global economy contributes to the spread of terrorism. The uneven development between advanced and developing countries, and the phenomenon of dependency characterized by the control of advanced nations, exacerbate organized crime and terrorism as a form of rebellion against global inequalities.
Additionally, policies of advanced countries and international financial institutions, particularly the IMF and World Bank, which impose economic reforms and structural adjustments, can worsen income distribution, purchasing power, poverty, and marginalization. Such policies often lead to high unemployment rates and increased crime and terrorism.
Economic Terrorism: This includes “informational terrorism,” where information resources such as computer networks and the internet are used for intimidation or coercion for political purposes. As technology plays an increasingly crucial role in various aspects of life, information terrorism can disrupt command and control systems, communications networks, and air defense systems.
Conclusion
Terrorism and its systematic use represent a method of coercion in the international community. Terrorism lacks universally agreed-upon objectives and legally binding definitions. In criminal law, along with common definitions of terrorism, it refers to violent acts aimed at creating an atmosphere of fear, directed against certain religious or political followers, or ideological targets, and involves deliberate targeting or disregard for the safety of non-combatants. Some definitions now include unlawful violence and warfare. Similar tactics are often used by criminal organizations to enforce their own rules.
Due to political and religious complexities, the concept of terrorism can sometimes be ambiguous and contested. It is noteworthy that Christians have suffered from terrorism due to extremist groups targeting them, and currently, Islam has also faced its share of this issue due to political reasons driven by international and regional conflicts.
The topic of terrorism has become a significant threat in today’s world, with recent years witnessing numerous terrorist incidents that have claimed millions of lives and devastated many countries, particularly in the Arab world. Terrorism begins by instilling fear and terror in individuals to force them into actions or beliefs, and then proceeds to destroy stability and security in pursuit of specific goals. Terrorism often starts with ideological extremism, where an individual’s values and principles, which they were raised with, change and shift. Additionally, the spread of extremist thought can result from harsh environmental and living conditions, leading individuals to become resentful of their society and turn into tools for terrorist organizations targeting specific countries or groups.
Suggestions
Proposed solutions to address terrorism at the economic, social, and political levels include:
**Addressing the Phenomenon of Terrorism:** In light of the economic, political, and social causes of terrorism, whether direct or indirect, several solutions and suggestions can be made, especially from an economic perspective, to mitigate the risks of this phenomenon and eventually eliminate its existence. Notable suggestions include:
1. Equality Among Social Classes: Addressing issues of underdevelopment and unemployment, which are remnants of chronic economic deprivation and continuous social oppression.
2. Redistribution of Wealth: Equitably distributing wealth and development resources to meet the basic needs of individuals, enabling them to contribute positively and avoid aggressive behaviors associated with terrorism, thereby fostering mutual trust between citizens and the state, as well as between citizens and their surrounding community.
3. Combating Corruption: Addressing administrative corruption and bribery across all state institutions and building an advanced economic base that meets the essential needs of citizens.
4. Expanding Freedom of Expression: Providing ample space for various youth groups to express their opinions to avoid marginalization, and establishing training and development centers to enhance their skills and talents.
5. Rehabilitating Communication and Information Sectors: Overhauling the communication and information sectors across the state to enable broader segments of society to access scientific and technological advancements, breaking the state of suppression and stagnation.
6. Controlling National Borders: Ensuring the security of geographical borders (land, sea, and air).
7. Addressing Social Issues: Tackling the problems of divorce and street children.
References:
- Schmid, Alex P. “Political Terrorism: A Research Guide.” Amsterdam: North-Holland Publishing Company.
- Morris, Eric. “Political Violence: A Global Perspective.” New York: Routledge.
- Jenkins, Brian Michael. “International Terrorism: A New World Disorder?” RAND Corporation.
- Wendt, Alexander. “Social Theory of International Politics.” Cambridge University Press.
