The Concept of Political clientelism

Corruption represents one of the serious challenges facing states and contemporary political systems. It is the misuse of positions of public responsibility for private gain, and includes violations such as bribery, extortion, embezzlement, as well as clientelism.

The latter is considered a form of corruption, a system based on many and varied practices fueled by a complex network of internal relations (kinships, clans, tribe…), and even international (the so-called axis of social relations at the international level with its new clients that link the interests of countries and the interests of local elites), which made it one of the main reasons for losing confidence in the political class and considering it one of the most important challenges and obstacles facing attempts to lay the foundations of good governance.

Accordingly, this study attempts to shed light on this phenomenon, identify it, and understand it more.

A- The concept of political clientelism:

1- Linguistic definition:

Clientelism is a specialized concept translated from the English word client which means follower, and indicates that a person lives under the protection of another.

As for the Arabic language, the word client or clientele is linguistically derived from the word “client”, which means, according to the language of the Arabs of Ibn Manzoor: payment and exchange, selling the fruit of its trees, or selling the risk. . It is therefore the process of exchange, payment and risk to take the need, which are linguistic meanings close to idiomatic meanings. It has many synonyms in Arab societies, such as: nepotism, loyalty, commitment, enslavement, servitude, captive, etc.

2- Idiomatic definition:

The term clientelism refers to a complex chain of ties between political patrons or chiefs and their clients or followers. Scholars have differed on a single definition of clientelism because of the wide and varied range of political exchanges that the term can accommodate.

There are those who define it, focusing on it being a method of electoral mobilization, such as the definition of Susan C. Stokes,  who  believes: that the customer is offering material goods in exchange for electoral support, where the distribution criterion used by the beneficiary  (patron) is Will you support me? Vote buying – often called electoral clientelism or partisan clientelism – is the usual scenario in which a candidate intends to buy votes, usually through intermediaries.

There are specialists who believe that clientelism includes the allocation of resources by the public, such as jobs or contracts, in exchange for political support, and it differs from buying votes in many ways, the most important of which is the extension of the deal for a longer period of time and is not limited to the electoral campaign period.

Some specialists define it as a bilateral, vertical alliance between two people who are unequal in status, power, or resources.

James Scott describes client relationships as an instrumental  friendship in which the first party (the patron) uses his higher social and economic status, in addition to his influence and resources, to provide protection or benefits to the second party ( client ), who is a lesser person compared to the first party.

This relationship may be voluntary and may take the form of threats rather than physical temptations, which is what Susan C. Stokes pointed out , and Kitshlet expressed it  by  saying: “Clientialism involves reciprocity and voluntary treatment, but also exploitation and control.”

To sum up what was said above, patronage is generally the sum of all transactions that take place between politicians and citizens, where material services are provided in return for political support .

Clientelism is based on the establishment of a tangled chain of links and relationships, which Olivier Roy  limited cognitively to three patterns:

The auxiliary network that forms around a man who enjoys some authority and which disappears with the demise of this authority.

– The traditional asabiyyah represented by the clan, tribe, village and extended family….

– Modern social and political fanaticism (unions, parties).

He concluded the strength of the relationship between the last two patterns in the political community in many developing countries.

B- Clientelism: Origins and Theoretical Approaches:

Clientelism is an ancient phenomenon that once meant “the ability or desire to make friends.” Its meaning shifted after it was first used in politics in 1952, when the Truman administration was accused of appointing friends to government positions regardless of their qualifications. or nepotism.

The origins of the concept of political clientelism go back to comparative French theoretical political thought, where the spread of clientelism was observed in France during the period 1871-1940.

In the modern era, British universities paid attention to political clientelism and prepared studies about it, and writers such as: (Corbin , Davis , Campbell ) emerged from it, and it is this interest that later extended to American universities, scholars such as: ( Foster , Kenny – M.Kenny , Friedrich – Friedrich ), and at the end of the seventies, Italian researchers such as: Gramsci and other researchers joined this group.

Until the seventies, most of these studies were purely anthropological in nature, and were characterized by valuable relational analyzes that would contribute to understanding the phenomenon of clientelism, especially in underdeveloped societies. With regard to studies concerned with the relationship of clientelism to the political system, they are relatively recent and their analyzes are superficial, limited to the ethical evaluation of the manifestations of clientelism in developing societies. , without going deep into the sociological analysis that expands the scope of the dimensions of this phenomenon and its practice that takes it out of its anthropological space and its local social field to the global one, and yet some of its terms have become a global dimension, on top of which (the family bond, the regional or regional bond).

Several criticisms were made of these studies from a sociological point of view, on top of which is linking clientelism with the effects of underdevelopment. For example, what was stated in a study entitled “ Safina-2015” : that the continued progress of nepotism leads to “brain drain” from Russia, which endangers social and economic development, as it went Some studies deny the existence of clientelism, especially at the political level in underdeveloped countries, and this criticism has been met with the assertion that clientelism is an existing political and social phenomenon, in addition to the fact that its practice is universal and is not limited to specific societies, nor can it be limited to a unilateral interpretation associated with one aspect, which is Limited resources (widespread poverty and lack of opportunities for social promotion). Rather, it may result primarily from weak religious or moral motives, or lack of transparency in management and organization methods, which pushes social actors to resort to mechanisms that breach non-transparent and unilateral systems, and relations prevail. clientele.

In addition to the studies that appeared in the seventies, other studies appeared in the eighties, such as: Judith Chubb’s studies on clientelism  in southern Italy.

C – Effects and results of clientelism:

Clientelism as a form of corruption is a real problem and a disease that gnaws at the body of contemporary democracies, as Malik Bennabi considered it a pathological phenomenon in societies. Views differed on its effects.

In general, its effects are devastating to the economy, frustrating aspirations for equal opportunities and determinants of competition, and impeding the aspiration of sustainable development.

In conclusion, it can be said that clientelism as a new, old phenomenon that is widespread nationally and internationally results in consequences that require combating it, which prompted specialists to suggest strategies for reform, including: adopting a decentralization system in administration, activating the role of civil society in raising awareness and combating corruption, adopting a policy of containment, reforming the civil service, In addition to other strategies.

Sources and references:

Kholoud Abdul Karim Khalaf, Clientelism and its Role in Contemporary Political Systems: A Case Study of Iraq, International Political Journal, 9/1/2021.

Fadel Dalio, Political and Social Clientelism in the Age of Democracy, Journal of Arts and Social Sciences, available at the link, 9/5/2021.

Derick W. Brinkerhoff , Arthur A. Goldsmith, Clientelism, Patrimonialism and Democratic Governance: An Overview and Framework for Assessment and Programming.

Jonathan Hopkin, Conceptualizing Political Clientelism: Political Exchange and Democratic Theory, 23/8/2021.

Jorge Gallego , Leonard Wantchekon , Clientelism: Concepts, Agents, and Solutions ,25/8/2021.