The issue of marine environmental risks and threats to Yemeni and regional maritime security in the strategically vital maritime areas of the Red Sea and the Indian Ocean is one of the pressing global problems. This region, comprising four sub-regions in the Red Sea, the Arabian Gulf, and both the eastern and western parts of the Indian Ocean, has seen escalating threats. Despite the presence of modern maritime forces and technologies, including those led by the U.S. military and Western alliances, no effective solutions have been found. Instead, the size and power of these naval forces have failed to ensure maritime security, further exacerbating environmental pollution and regional conflicts. Consequently, Yemen’s vital marine areas, along with the wider Arab maritime sphere, have turned into battlegrounds for international naval power struggles, involving 34 coastal and foreign states in the region.
The region’s status as a key global trade route for energy and goods further intensifies these challenges. It is a dynamic maritime zone, with high volumes of global commercial shipping. Furthermore, the rise in piracy, armed robbery, and the overall lack of security and stability, such as attacks on ships and oil tankers, exemplified by the French oil tanker incident in 2002 (Hamran, 2023), are worsening the situation. The maritime conflicts among regional powers, which have escalated since the 1990s, contribute to the growing environmental and security risks faced by Yemen and the surrounding area.
Given the vast expanse of this region, along with the significant influence of international forces, and from the perspective of realist theory, it is difficult for a single state like Yemen or any other coastal state to resolve these issues in isolation. This necessitates thorough research and enhanced leadership in maritime innovations in Yemen, the Arab world, and the wider region. The goal is to establish mechanisms for political and maritime integration, ensuring the unification of fragmented policies in the exclusive economic zones. Such integration can facilitate the collection of vital maritime data and its practical application. Marine environmental management, a major global challenge, requires modern data, tools, and efforts to address it effectively.
In this context, the proposal of creating a unified Yemeni, Arab, and regional maritime command center, incorporating artificial intelligence (AI) and modern maritime technologies, becomes essential. This center could monitor and manage marine activities across the region, using AI-driven remote sensing technologies for multiple purposes. A proposal for this initiative is set to be discussed in an upcoming scientific conference on Yemeni research.
Challenges in Marine Environmental Monitoring
One of the major difficulties in monitoring and gathering marine data in the region is the sheer size of the area, the high costs involved, and the underdeveloped maritime infrastructure in many developing coastal states compared to Western countries like the U.S. and Europe. Monitoring coastal and oceanic pollution, especially from modern commercial vessels, is a significant concern. These vessels contribute to a variety of environmental risks, including oxygen depletion in the sea and other forms of marine pollution, such as noise pollution caused by modern technologies and AI-based maritime systems.
Failure of U.S. Military Command and its Threat to Yemeni, Arab, and Regional Security
The U.S. military command in the region serves as an instrument of American foreign policy in the Arab world, the Middle East, and South and Central Asia, which includes the Red Sea and the Indian Ocean. Consequently, the people of Yemen and the wider Arab and regional populations face a variety of military, political, and environmental threats from this presence. These challenges have persisted both before and after the Cold War, particularly after 1990. From a geopolitical perspective, reports indicate growing political and military pressure between the U.S., Britain, regional Arab powers, and emerging forces such as Yemen, the resistance axis, the Saudi navy, as well as the navies of Iran, India, China, and Russia.
Key maritime military capabilities include:
- Nuclear submarines
- Nuclear naval fleets
- U.S. maritime reconnaissance aircraft
These forces contribute to the ongoing environmental, security, and political challenges in the Red Sea, Gulf of Aden, Arabian Sea, and the wider Indian Ocean region. A 2024 international report on oceans, prepared by 98 researchers from 25 countries, outlines the key environmental challenges affecting sustainable marine development under the United Nations’ 14th Sustainable Development Goal. The report highlights both natural and human-induced marine problems, such as nutrient depletion and the rise in carbon dioxide levels in the sea due to global warming, which is exacerbating problems like marine eutrophication. The report also stresses the importance of nitrogen and phosphate in sustaining marine ecosystems in this region, in addition to addressing marine litter and the necessity of implementing regional marine spatial planning.
Yemen’s Role in Blue Carbon Projects
Field projects are essential for developing blue carbon initiatives, which aim to preserve, restore, and manage coastal ecosystems. Strategically designed field projects can demonstrate the viability of blue carbon, help develop science-based methodologies, and build local and national capacities for managing these ecosystems. Various organizations and partners in the Blue Carbon Initiative are working globally on the science, policy, and management of these vital ecosystems. The main objectives include national accounting of carbon stocks and emissions from blue carbon ecosystems, improving the management of these ecosystems within protected areas, and developing blue carbon offset strategies for tourism activities.
Yemen faces numerous environmental challenges due to both local and global factors, including outdated maritime policies and the absence of integrated political and maritime governance in Yemen and the broader Arab region. Furthermore, the presence of the U.S. and Western naval fleets, conducting numerous military operations in the exclusive economic zones, has negatively impacted the marine environment and poses significant challenges to achieving sustainable marine development.
At the local level, maritime activities are gradually replacing natural ecosystems, leading to local and global biodiversity and climate crises. These problems are widespread and have severe impacts on the marine environment in the region.
The study relied on various methods and methodologies in global maritime political initiatives. UNESCO identified ten major challenges facing the international community in the seas and oceans around the world (UNESCO, 2023).
One of the key challenges related to marine pollution involves the lack of knowledge, understanding, and ability to overcome it. It also includes the need to understand maps and sources of marine and land-based pollutants, their impact on human health and marine ecosystems, and the development of solutions to either eliminate or reduce them. Addressing these issues forms one of the primary goals.
Environmental problems are widespread at every level—local, Arab, regional, and global. Yemen, along with many other Arab and regional countries bordering the Red Sea and the Indian Ocean, faces significant challenges that impact the natural marine environment along the region’s coasts. The marine domain within the study area is vital, and the problems, risks, and threats vary from one area to another. Many marine strategies have been followed to curb deterioration, preserve marine sustainability, and achieve maritime political and environmental integration and development. The study aims to update and develop Yemeni and Arab marine policies, enhancing integration and shared values. These challenges were categorized from the perspective of coastal marine management and spatial strategic planning into several areas: the Red Sea, the Gulf of Aden, the Arabian Gulf, the Arabian Sea, and various internal bodies of water and gulfs, all collectively referred to as the “Arab Marine Region” in the northern Indian Ocean, and further divided into the Western and Eastern Indian Ocean regions. From an economic theory standpoint, the study seeks to achieve economic specialization and integration by discussing industrial coastal states, states with geostrategic and agricultural coastal backdrops, and logistical support areas to implement strategic marine management.
One of the region’s primary challenges is the rising population and urban expansion in coastal areas, particularly in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden countries, which also suffer from a scarcity of clean water for drinking and agricultural irrigation.
Environmental pollution is another issue. The Red Sea and Indian Ocean regions have been classified as liquid waste disposal sites, with both urban and industrial waste contributing to the pollution. Industrial areas, requiring large amounts of freshwater for cooling and production, face water shortages, including Yemen. Meanwhile, emissions and factory waste are affecting the marine environment (Gerges, 2002, p. 3).
The marine waters of the study area are historically one of the primary routes for international trade, now increasingly polluted by maritime shipping activities. As the demand for goods rises, so does pollution, exacerbated by newer ships and nuclear submarines. Oil tankers and ship washing, along with their waste, further contribute to pollution, impacting marine life and biodiversity in the Red Sea. Due to the geographical nature of the area, it is a narrow zone with overlapping shipping lanes through Yemeni, regional islands, and neighboring countries like Djibouti, Somalia, Eritrea, and Egypt. This pollution has devastated fish populations, marine life, and coral reefs. Industrial and oil export sites, like Ras Issa, also harm fish stocks, especially around Hodeidah.
Overfishing and the lack of marine data and fishing maps are also key challenges. Marine life, especially fish, are under threat due to overfishing and the use of unlicensed fishing tools. Since 2015, Yemen’s coasts have been subjected to extensive illegal and excessive fishing by foreign vessels. Similarly, the fisheries in the Gulf of Aqaba suffer from overfishing and the use of unlicensed nets. Marine species such as lobster and shrimp have been heavily exploited, and Yemen’s squid fisheries collapsed in the 1980s before recovering due to improved marine management practices.
One of the greatest threats to marine fisheries and marine life in the region is the destruction of coastal habitats, which harms marine species. This includes coastal developments and unlicensed land reclamation activities, as well as oil spills, which negatively affect fish stocks (Gerges, 2002).
Another significant challenge is the management of blue carbon in the region. Blue carbon refers to the carbon naturally stored in coastal and marine ecosystems. The current Blue Carbon Initiative focuses on coastal marine ecosystems such as mangrove forests, tidal marshes, and seagrass beds, which store significant amounts of blue carbon in their structures and underlying sediments. Approximately 95% of the carbon in seagrass meadows is stored in the soil. In the Red Sea and Indian Ocean regions, blue carbon is concentrated in areas with mangrove trees, saltwater marshes, and seagrass along the coasts, with the exception of Antarctica. These ecosystems cover between 13.8 and 15.2 million hectares, 2.2 to 40 million hectares, and 17.7 to 60 million hectares, respectively, accounting for approximately 49 million hectares globally.
According to descriptions and studies, the Red Sea region, including Yemen, has a significant reserve of blue carbon, particularly along the coast of Hodeidah in areas like Salif, Al-Arj, and Al-Jabana, stretching from the port of Hodeidah to the Salif area.
Some countries have begun integrating coastal ecosystems for blue carbon as part of their efforts to mitigate climate change. This is considered one of the modern contributions of states participating in the Paris Agreement (NDC) (as of March 31, 2024) and the National Greenhouse Gas Inventories (GHGI). Of the 18 countries involved, four have incorporated coastal blue carbon ecosystems into both their Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) and their GHGI, including Indonesia, the Republic of Korea, the United Arab Emirates, and the United States of America. Additionally, six out of the 18 countries only include coastal blue carbon ecosystems in their NDCs: Costa Rica, Fiji, Papua New Guinea, Seychelles, Sierra Leone, and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. Meanwhile, three of the 18 countries—Australia, Japan, and Madagascar—incorporate coastal blue carbon ecosystems only in their GHGI. Lastly, four countries—France, Monaco, Norway, and Somalia—do not include coastal blue carbon ecosystems in either their NDCs or GHGI. It is important to note that Australia, Korea, and the United States are the only countries that classify blue carbon ecosystems under wetland greenhouse gases.
4. Harmful Algal Blooms: The Harmful Algal Information System (HAIS), once fully established, will provide access to data on harmful algal bloom events, monitoring and management systems worldwide, and the current use of taxonomic names for harmful algae. It will also contain biogeographical information on harmful algal species. The complementary components of HAIS include an expert directory and a bibliography. This system is being developed within the framework of the “International Oceanographic Data and Information Exchange” (IODE) under the “Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission” (IOC) of UNESCO, in collaboration with organizations such as WoRMS, ICES, PICES, IAEA, and ISSHA. HAIS components will offer a taxonomic checklist of toxic microalgae maintained by the IOC, which serves as a reference for the use of names and species information for toxic microalgae. It will be integrated into the World Register of Marine Species (WoRMS). The international directory of experts on harmful algae and their impacts on fisheries and public health will form a specialized section of the IOC’s “Ocean Expert” directory. Additionally, the biogeography of harmful algal species, known as HABMAP, within OBIS (in collaboration with ISSHA), is currently under development (IOC, 2024).
5. Oxygen Depletion in Marine Waters: Why is there a need to establish a regional and global database for oxygen and carbon dioxide? Specifically, the study area suffers from oxygen depletion and increased carbon dioxide due to its critical geostrategic location, which serves as a hub for strategic maritime accumulations in the production, transport, and distribution of global energy and marine trade routes. This requires monitoring, collecting, analyzing, managing, and integrating high-quality marine data from various local, regional, and global sources. The data will be integrated with modern marine technology and regional remote sensing for a comprehensive approach. This is crucial in addressing the growing dynamics of environmental threats and risks highlighted by ocean-related issues and global marine reports concerning oxygen depletion in seas and oceans. The study aims to assist decision-makers in Yemen, the Arab region, and beyond in promoting joint security and environmental policies to maintain a clean, healthy, resilient, and renewable marine environment in the Red Sea and Indian Ocean. This aligns with the global priorities set in the United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 14 for 2030, the 2024 regional maritime policies, and the UN Decade of Ocean Science. The study also supports the objectives of the Yemen and Arab Regional General Authority for Marine Sciences and Marine Biology in producing accurate environmental marine maps, identifying areas of marine risk concentration, and applying marine modeling to determine the regions most affected by daily maritime activities.
5.1. Geostrategic and Environmental Impacts: Due to the geostrategic location of the Red Sea and the Indian Ocean, which constitute vital parts of global maritime strategies, these areas are exposed to multiple risks and pollutants. These include the impacts of emissions from commercial ships, oil tankers, and military vessels, including nuclear submarines and aircraft carriers, which result in significant environmental risks. Current evidence suggests that global oxygen levels in seas and oceans have decreased by 0.5-3%, with minimum oxygen zones expanding. Due to the scarcity of global marine data, reliance has been placed on models and technologies that indicate sporadic zones of oxygen depletion, often near the seafloor. This oxygen deficiency has resulted in phenomena such as eutrophication, acidification, and marine oxidation (Grégoire, 2021). The severity of global oxygen depletion has reached levels exceeding 60 micromoles per kilogram in coastal and oceanic waters. The map indicates oxygen depletion levels in the Red Sea, Gulf of Aden, the Arabian Sea, and both the western and eastern parts of the Indian Ocean, where the depletion varies, suggesting that these regions are at risk of worsening oxygen depletion and other environmental marine complications. Map 2 illustrates the oxygen depletion levels in the Red Sea and the Indian Ocean.”
A total of 500 sites along coastal regions have been identified as areas of low oxygen, represented by red dots, while in open seas and oceans, the areas affected by oxygen depletion reach approximately 3 million cubic kilometers, shown in blue at a depth of 300 meters.
Data from international oceanographic centers, studies by Gruber et al. (2010), and the use of geographic information systems (GIS) and remote sensing technologies, as well as the deployment of specialized marine buoys, called BGC-Argo, which measure and monitor oxygen depletion, were utilized. These buoys, known for their ability to measure biogeochemical processes, help monitor oxygen levels in seas and oceans (Ocean Carbon, 2022). In 2021, a deployment of acoustic depth measurement systems and biogeochemical buoys took place, covering 12 to 36 marine sites at depths of up to 2000 meters.
Initiatives such as the GOOS strategy for BGC variables, the international BGC Argo program (Johnson and Claustre, 2016; Roemmich, Riser, 2019), aim to operate globally coordinated networks, allowing the deployment of over 1,000 BGC buoys. The more buoys, measurement systems, and marine studies are available, the greater the understanding of the impacts of marine activities. These systems measure the key parameters of all six essential BGC variables, focusing on environmental changes in oxygen (O2) at a global scale. To benefit from these experiences, a working group from the Arab Academics Union, in collaboration with the General Authority for Marine Science Research and Aquatic Life, aims to communicate with marine research centers such as the Global Ocean Data Center, NOAA (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration), and Copernicus to add between 1,000 and 5,000 BGC buoys measuring O2 globally. The growing contribution of the Argo network to monitoring oxygen depletion strengthens the role of working groups, which aim to achieve 50% of their goals by sampling from these buoys in global oceans. This enhances the capabilities of platforms and structures monitoring open ocean oxygen depletion, addressing the chronic lack of data and facilitating mapping and analysis of marine models using these buoys for observation.
The current web-based data product in the study area highlights the importance of integrating marine innovations and technologies with artificial intelligence (AI). The goal is to unify and integrate the marine systems of Yemen, the Arab world, and the region, particularly in the Red Sea and the Indian Ocean. This integration is based on advanced marine technologies and AI, developed through non-linear methodologies in unstable exclusive economic waters. Additionally, it aims to build an Arab-controlled automated maritime system for multi-purpose aerial drones. Previous studies have emphasized the importance of this endeavor (Garcia et al., 2005, 2013, 2019; Stramma et al., 2008; Lavery et al., 2016; Schmidtko et al., 2017), which utilized Winkler and CTD data to establish an accepted framework for monitoring, inspecting, and analyzing data through integrated and high-quality marine platforms to oversee activities in the region. It is also aimed at developing technological products that contribute to the unification and advancement of the region’s comprehensive marine technology system.
The Yemeni, Arab, and regional maritime working groups have incorporated four remote sensing systems: GIS, sonar, LiDAR, and satellite marine imagery. Combined with Winkler data, biogeochemical buoys, and other marine data sources, they support the creation of a web-based product to monitor the marine environment, with oxygen depletion in the Red Sea and Indian Ocean highlighted as a priority. This initiative facilitates the structured evaluation of oxygen depletion trends in the study area and assesses the role of preventive measures in maintaining natural oxygen levels.
The study aims to foster collaboration with Yemeni and Arab organizations through the Yemeni Maritime Affairs Organization, as well as regional and global marine research centers. The goal is to share, manage, and analyze marine data to create a unified Yemeni, Arab, and regional marine database. This collaboration will contribute to the development of a global marine database and an ocean oxygen atlas (GO2DAT) for regional seas, coastal areas, and open oceans, including protected Yemeni and Arab regions in the study area. The southern Red Sea region stands out as an area that requires legal protection and marine conservation laws.
The O2 depletion group, TUOAAWGO, will focus on integrating O2 data by leveraging the observations and guidelines from platforms like Copernicus, Eulerian, Lagrangian, Winkler standards, and modern marine remote sensing and sonar technologies for O2. These technologies were employed to determine temperature, O2 depth, stationary platforms, and autonomous marine vessels, including Arab, regional, and Chinese mobile marine platforms. Modern technologies, including AI-driven depth measurement and remote sensing systems, such as GNSS for marine monitoring and data collection (NovAtel, Yoitub), are also being used.
The focus is on continuous coordination to ensure quality control (QC) of marine data and information by tracking uncertainties and evaluating potential problems. This process includes coordination with the local community in the study area. TUOAAWG operates within the framework of ocean monitoring principles (FOO, UNESCO, 2012) and the 2021 Decade of Ocean Science, contributing to sustainable marine development. The center’s efforts will be supported through partnerships and donations from marine shipping companies, the World Maritime Trade Organization, and Silk Road Company. This initiative will be important for Yemeni, Arab, and regional research centers.
The study concludes by highlighting the persistent environmental risks to the Yemeni, Arab, and regional marine environments. These risks stem from the study area’s strategic importance in global maritime trade, growing geopolitical tensions, and the advancement of modern marine technologies, including radioactive materials from nuclear submarines and Western strategic naval deterrence. There is an urgent need to raise awareness at the local, Arab, and regional levels about the dangers of external marine pollutants and to establish Yemeni and Arab maritime associations and agencies dedicated to protecting the marine environment and mitigating marine pollution risks.
It is necessary to engage with international legal and specialized bodies, such as the United Nations, to address the growing commercial and military maritime activities in the study area, in accordance with international maritime laws. The World Maritime Trade Organization should also be approached to discuss the issue and take measures to minimize the impact of commercial shipping and military naval activities in the exclusive economic zone. Researchers, under the supervision of the General Authority for Marine Science Research and Aquatic Life, in coordination with the Ministry of Fisheries, the Ministry of Transport, the Yemeni Environmental Marine Authority, and the defense and interior ministries, should form a national marine committee. This committee will work to unify the vision and draw a modern Yemeni maritime policy, prioritizing applied marine research to address major issues aligned with Yemen’s political vision for 2023, and enhancing the role of the international relations unit within the General Authority for Marine Science Research and Aquatic Life. Cooperation with neighboring countries to unify and integrate marine political management is also crucial, in line with regional maritime security and the UN’s 2023 sustainable marine development goals.
Finally, the study suggests enhancing coordination through Yemeni, Arab, and regional maritime diplomacy with advanced and friendly nations like China, Malaysia, Oman, Iran, and Gulf coastal states. These efforts will help unify and manage marine data and contribute to joint efforts in monitoring and protecting the marine environment, a shared interest. Additionally, leveraging the expertise of specialized UN marine agencies is essential to access the necessary technical knowledge and resources.
The study proposes enhancing the Yemeni, Arab, and regional marine working groups, fostering greater collaboration in research and studies, and exchanging ideas on maritime priorities, such as spatial marine planning. Practical solutions to monitor marine pollution include the latest marine robots and the GNSS system. Furthermore, the study recommends using global marine data centers, such as Copernicus and NOAA, as well as Asian maritime agencies and regional Arab research centers, for applied marine research.
The study also encourages conducting field research and experimental maritime studies for university students in Yemeni waters for initial training.”
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